An Introduction To The Languages Of The World Pdf Map
Contemporary distribution (2005 map) of the world's major language families (in some cases geographic groups of families). This map includes only primary families i.e. Branches are excluded.For greater detail, see.A language family is a group of related through from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the of that family. The term 'family' reflects the of language origination in, which makes use of a metaphor comparing languages to people in a biological, or in a subsequent modification, to species in a of evolutionary. Linguists therefore describe the daughter languages within a language family as being genetically related.According to the 7,111 living human languages are distributed in 141 different language families. A 'living language' is simply one that is currently used as the primary form of communication of a group of people. There are also many, or languages which have no native speakers living, and, which have no native speakers and no descendant languages.
An Introduction To The Languages Of The World Pdf Maps
Finally, there are some languages that are insufficiently studied to be classified, and probably some which are not even known to exist outside their respective speech communities.Membership of languages in a language family is established by research in. Are said to have a 'genetic' or 'genealogical' relationship. The latter term is older. Speakers of a language family belong to a common.
The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, with the original speech community gradually evolving into distinct linguistic units. Individuals belonging to other speech communities may also adopt languages from a different language family through the process.Genealogically related languages present shared retentions; that is, features of the proto-language (or reflexes of such features) that cannot be explained by chance or. Membership in a branch or group within a language family is established by shared innovations; that is, common features of those languages that are not found in the common ancestor of the entire family. For example, are 'Germanic' in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in, a descendant of Proto-Indo-European that was the source of all Germanic languages.
Contents.Structure of a family Language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a. A family is a unit; all its members derive from a common ancestor, and all descendants of that ancestor are included in the family. (Thus, the term family is analogous to the biological term.)Some restrict the term family to a certain level, but there is little consensus in how to do so. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, and groups into complexes. A top-level (i.e., the largest) family is often called a phylum or stock. The closer the branches are to each other, the closer the languages will be related. This means if a branch off of a is 4 branches down and there is also a to that fourth branch, then the two sister languages are more closely related to each other than to that common ancestral proto-language.The term or superfamily is sometimes applied to proposed groupings of language families whose status as phylogenetic units is generally considered to be unsubstantiated by accepted methods.
For example, the, and language families are branches of a larger language family. There is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestrythat was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the putative phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically (by ancestry) as opposed to horizontally (by spatial diffusion). Dialect continua.
Main article:Some closely knit language families, and many branches within larger families, take the form of in which there are no clear-cut borders that make it possible to unequivocally identify, define, or count individual languages within the family. However, when the differences between the speech of different regions at the extremes of the continuum are so great that there is no between them, as occurs in, the continuum cannot meaningfully be seen as a single language.A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations. Thus, different sources, especially over time, can give wildly different numbers of languages within a certain family., for example, range from one language (a language isolate with dialects) to nearly twenty—until the classification of as separate languages within a rather than dialects of Japanese, the itself was considered a and therefore the only language in its family.Isolates. Main article:Most of the world's languages are known to be related to others. Those that have no known relatives (or for which family relationships are only tentatively proposed) are called, essentially language families consisting of a single language.
An example is. In general, it is assumed that language isolates have relatives or had relatives at some point in their history but at a time depth too great for linguistic comparison to recover them.A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as and within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate, but the meaning of the word 'isolate' in such cases is usually clarified with a. For instance, Albanian and Armenian may be referred to as an 'Indo-European isolate'. By contrast, so far as is known, the is an absolute isolate: it has not been shown to be related to any other language despite numerous attempts. Another well-known isolate is, the Mapuche language from the in Chile. A language may be said to be an isolate currently but not historically if related but now extinct relatives are attested.
The, spoken in Roman times, may have been an ancestor of Basque, but it could also have been a sister language to the ancestor of Basque. In the latter case, Basque and Aquitanian would form a small family together.
(Ancestors are not considered to be distinct members of a family.)Proto-languages. Main article:A proto-language can be thought of as a mother language (not to be confused with a, which is one that a specific person has been exposed to from birth ), being the root which all languages in the family stem from. The common ancestor of a language family is seldom known directly since most languages have a relatively short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many features of a proto-language by applying the, a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th century linguist.
This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families in the. For example, the reconstructible common ancestor of the Indo-European language family is called. Proto-Indo-European is not attested by written records and so is conjectured to have been spoken before the invention of writing.Other classifications of languages.
Main article:Shared innovations, acquired by borrowing or other means, are not considered genetic and have no bearing with the language family concept. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by (, etc.) might well be '. However, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as 'areal', either, since English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar unique innovations in Germanic, and that are far more likely to be areal features than traceable to a common proto-language. But legitimate uncertainty about whether shared innovations are areal features, coincidence, or inheritance from a common ancestor, leads to disagreement over the proper subdivisions of any large language family.A is a geographic area having several languages that feature common linguistic structures.
The similarities between those languages are caused by language contact, not by chance or common origin, and are not recognized as criteria that define a language family. An example of a sprachbund would be the.Contact languages. Main articles: andThe concept of language families is based on the historical observation that languages develop, which over time may diverge into distinct languages. However, linguistic ancestry is less clear-cut than familiar biological ancestry, in which species do not crossbreed.
It is more like the evolution of microbes, with extensive: Quite distantly related languages may affect each other through, which in extreme cases may lead to languages with no single ancestor, whether they be. In addition, a number of have developed in isolation and appear to have no relatives at all. Nonetheless, such cases are relatively rare and most well-attested languages can be unambiguously classified as belonging to one language family or another, even if this family's relation to other families is not known.See also Background colors used on Wikipedia for various language families and groups?(and )//. Rowe, Bruce M.; Levine, Diane P.
Retrieved 26 January 2017. Ethnologue. (1862). Lectures on the science of language: delivered at the Royal institution of Great Britain in April, May and June, 1861 (3rd ed.).
London: Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts. Badan pe sitare lapete hue mp4 video song download. The genealogical classification of the Aryan languages was founded, as we saw, on a close comparison of the grammatical characteristics of each. Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. John Benjamins Publishing. Retrieved 26 January 2017.
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